Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)
Botany, Geographical Distribution, and Horticultural Information of Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)
Botany:
Crataegus monogyna, commonly known as common hawthorn, one-seed hawthorn, or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. It is a shrub or small tree that can grow up to about 10 meters tall, with a dense crown. The bark is dull brown with vertical orange cracks, and the younger stems bear sharp thorns about 12.5 millimeters long. The leaves are obovate, 20 to 40 mm long, and deeply lobed. The hermaphrodite flowers are produced in late spring, are white or sometimes pink, and are pollinated by midges, bees, and other insects. The fruit, known as haws, are small, oval, dark red pomes about 10 mm long, containing a single seed.
Geographical Distribution:
Crataegus monogyna is native to Europe, northwestern Africa, and West Asia. It has been introduced in many other parts of the world. The plant is found in a variety of habitats, including hedgerows, scrubs, thickets, and woodlands. It is adaptable to different soil types and environmental conditions.
Horticultural Information:
1. Cultivation: Common hawthorn is extensively planted as a hedge plant, especially for agricultural use. Its spines and close branching habit make it effective for livestock and human-proof barriers. The plant is also used in gardens and landscapes for its ornamental value.
2. Propagation: Hawthorn can be propagated from seeds, cuttings, or by layering. It is important to note that seeds may require stratification to germinate.
3. Maintenance: Regular pruning is necessary to maintain the desired shape and size. The plant is relatively low-maintenance and can tolerate a range of soil conditions and climates.
4. Uses: Apart from its use as a hedge, the haws are edible and are commonly made into jellies, jams, and syrups. The plant is also used in traditional medicine, particularly for cardiac insufficiency.
5. Hybrids and Cultivars: There are numerous hybrids and cultivars of Crataegus monogyna, some of which are used as ornamental garden shrubs. The most widely used hybrid is Crataegus × media (C. monogyna × C. laevigata).
References:
1. “Crataegus monogyna – Wikipedia” – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crataegus_monogyna
2. “Biological Flora of the British Isles: Crataegus monogyna” – https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2745.13554
3. “Crataegus monogyna (hawthorn) | CABI Compendium” – https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabicompendium.16496
4. “Hawthorn / RHS Gardening” – https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/hawthorn
5. “Botanical, Phytochemical, Anti-Microbial and Pharmaceutical Characteristics of Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.), Rosaceae” – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8659235/
6. “Crataegus monogyna Profile – California Invasive Plant Council” – https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/crataegus-monogyna-profile/
7. “Crataegus monogyna (Common Hawthorn) – Gardenia.net” – https://www.gardenia.net/plant/crataegus-monogyna
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History & Traditional Herbal Uses of Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)
History:
Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn, one-seed hawthorn, or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. It is native to Europe, northwestern Africa, and West Asia, but has been introduced in many other parts of the world. The species has been referred to as Crataegus oxyacantha in historical texts, a name now considered too ambiguous. Common names for the plant include may, mayblossom, maythorn, quickthorn, whitethorn, motherdie, and haw.
Traditional Herbal Uses:
1. Medicinal Use: C. monogyna is one of the most common species used as the “hawthorn” of traditional herbalism. The plant parts used are usually sprigs with both leaves and flowers, or alternatively the fruit (“berries”). Hawthorn has been investigated for treating cardiac insufficiency. It is a source of antioxidant phytochemicals, especially extracts of hawthorn leaves with flowers.
2. Food: The fruit of hawthorn, called haws, are edible raw but are commonly made into jellies, jams, syrups, or wine, or to add flavor to brandy. The petals and young leaves are also edible, with the petals being used in medieval English recipes and the young leaves in salads.
3. Cultural Significance: In pre-modern Europe, hawthorn was used as a symbol of hope and as a charm against witchcraft and vampires. It was believed to have the ability to inhibit supernatural forces and was associated with the crown of thorns in Christian tradition. Hawthorn was used in various protective rituals against witchcraft and was thought to be sacred.
4. Agricultural Use: Common hawthorn is extensively planted as a hedge plant, especially for agricultural use. Its spines and close branching habit render it effectively livestock- and human-proof, with some basic maintenance. The traditional practice of hedge laying is most commonly practiced with this species.
5. Notable Trees: Notable specimens of C. monogyna include ancient trees in France and England, such as the one alongside the church at Saint-Mars-sur-la-Futaie, Mayenne, and the Glastonbury or Holy Thorn in England, which was believed to have sprouted from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea.
References:
1. “Crataegus monogyna – Wikipedia” – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crataegus_monogyna
2. “Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) – Woodland Trust” – https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/british-trees/a-z-of-british-trees/hawthorn/
3. “Everything You Need to Know About Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) – Permaculture” – https://www.permaculture.co.uk/articles/everything-you-need-to-know-about-hawthorn-crataegus-monogyna/
4. “Hawthorn – The Plant Medicine School” – https://theplantmedicineschool.com/plants/hawthorn
5. “Hawthorn *Crataegus Monogyna – The Life, Musings and Experiences of a Modern Witch” – https://thewitchwench.com/2020/04/28/hawthorn/
6. “Hawthorn: Research Notes – Medicinal Forest Garden Trust” – https://medicinalforestgardentrust.org/hawthorn-research-notes/
7. “Crataegus monogyna (hawthorn) | CABI Compendium” – https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabicompendium.16496
8. “Hawthorn | Uses, Medicinal Properties & Nutrition – Britannica” – https://www.britannica.com/plant/hawthorn
9. “Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) | Trees & Hedges – Habitat Aid” – https://www.habitataid.co.uk/products/hawthorn-crataegus-monogyna
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Pharmacological and Medicinal Studies on Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)
Overview:
Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) is a widely recognized plant in traditional medicine, known for its therapeutic potential. Recent scientific studies have focused on validating its traditional uses and exploring its pharmacological properties.
Key Pharmacological Findings:
1. Cardiovascular Health: Hawthorn has been extensively studied for its cardiovascular benefits. It is known for its efficacy in treating cardiac insufficiency and is believed to improve heart function by increasing coronary blood flow, improving circulation, and lowering blood pressure.
2. Antioxidant Properties: The plant is a rich source of antioxidants, including flavonoids and vitamin C. These compounds contribute to its ability to scavenge free radicals, thereby offering protection against oxidative stress-related diseases.
3. Anti-Cancer Potential: A study highlighted the therapeutic effects of Crataegus monogyna against breast cancer. The bioactive compounds in hawthorn, such as luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol, ursolic acid, and oleanolic acid, were found to be effective in altering target genes implicated in breast cancer pathogenesis.
4. Nutritional and Functional Food: Hawthorn is also valued as a functional food. Its various parts, including flowers, fruits, and leaves, are rich in nutrients and nutraceuticals, supporting its use in nutrition and as a medicinal plant.
5. Phytochemical Composition: The plant is known for its diverse phytochemical profile, which includes flavonoids, glycosides, anthocyanins, saponins, tannins, and essential oils. These compounds contribute to its broad pharmacological activities.
6. Therapeutic Formulations: Hawthorn extracts are used in various therapeutic formulations, particularly for treating chronic and degenerative diseases. The focus on flavonoids in these extracts highlights their multi-therapeutic role.
References:
1. “Polyphenolic Composition of Crataegus monogyna Jacq.: From Chemistry to Medical Applications” – https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu7095361
2. “Therapeutic effects of Crataegus monogyna inhibitors against breast cancer” – https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2023.1187079
3. “Comparing the composition and bioactivity of Crataegus Monogyna flowers and fruits used in folk medicine.” – https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pca.1267
4. “Botanical, Phytochemical, Anti-Microbial and Pharmaceutical Characteristics of Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.), Rosaceae” – https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26237266
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Hawthorn – Phytochemistry<
here is a detailed list of the specific compounds found in Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna):
Flavonoids:
Hawthorn is a rich source of flavonoids, which are a group of plant compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These include:
Proanthocyanidins: Proanthocyanidins are a type of flavonoid that is found in high concentrations in hawthorn berries. Proanthocyanidins are thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These include:
Hyperoside
Vitexin
Isoquercitrin
Quercetin
Rutin
Apigenin
Luteolin
Apigenin-7-O-glucoside
Luteolin-3′,7-diglucoside
Type A proanthocyanidins: Hawthorn contains a variety of type A proanthocyanidins, which are oligomeric compounds that are composed of several units of catechin and epicatechin. Type A proanthocyanidins are thought to be the most abundant type of proanthocyanidins in hawthorn.
Type B proanthocyanidins: Hawthorn also contains a small amount of type B proanthocyanidins, which are polymeric compounds that are composed of more units of catechin and epicatechin than type A proanthocyanidins. Type B proanthocyanidins are thought to be less abundant than type A proanthocyanidins in hawthorn.
Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs): Hawthorn contains a variety of oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs), which are compounds that are composed of only a few units of catechin and epicatechin. OPCs are thought to be the most potent type of proanthocyanidins in hawthorn.
Polymeric proanthocyanidins: Hawthorn also contains a small amount of polymeric proanthocyanidins, which are compounds that are composed of more units of catechin and epicatechin than OPCs. Polymeric proanthocyanidins are thought to be less potent than OPCs in hawthorn.
Phenolic acids: Hawthorn contains a variety of phenolic acids, which are compounds that are derived from the oxidation of lignin. Phenolic acids are thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Hydroxycinnamic acids: Hawthorn contains a variety of hydroxycinnamic acids, including caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and ferulic acid. Hydroxycinnamic acids are thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Flavan-3-ols: Hawthorn contains a variety of flavan-3-ols, including catechins and epicatechin. Flavan-3-ols are thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Procyanidins B2, B5, C1: Hawthorn contains a variety of procyanidins, which are oligomeric compounds that are composed of several units of flavan-3-ols. Procyanidins are thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Flavonols: Hawthorn also contains a variety of flavonols, such as kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin. Flavonols are thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Flavanones: Hawthorn also contains a variety of flavonones, such as apigenin, hesperidin, and naringenin. Flavanones are thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Acids:
Chlorogenic acid
Ferulic acid
Coumaric acid
Sinapic acid
Malic acid
Citric acid
Quinic acid
Ascorbic acid
Protocatechin acid
3- and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid
Salicylic acid
Syringic acid
Volatile oils:
Hawthorn contains a variety of volatile oils, which are a group of aromatic compounds that contribute to the plant’s flavor and aroma. The most abundant volatile oils in hawthorn are:
Linalool: Linalool is a volatile oil with a sweet, floral scent. It is thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Limonene: Limonene is a volatile oil with a citrusy scent. It is thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Citral: Citral is a volatile oil with a lemony scent. It is thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Benzaldehyde: Benzaldehyde is a volatile oil with a sweet, almond-like scent. It is thought to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Alkaloids:
Hawthorn contains a variety of alkaloids, which are a type of plant compound with various physiological effects. The most abundant alkaloids in hawthorn are:
Vincamine: Vincamine is an alkaloid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties.
Vincamine is the most abundant alkaloid in hawthorn. It is thought to play a role in the plant’s ability to improve blood flow to the heart.
Amygdalin: Amygdalin is an alkaloid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic properties.
Amygdalin is a cyanogenic glycoside, which means that it contains cyanide. However, the cyanide is not released from amygdalin until it is broken down in the digestive system.
Other bioactive compounds:
Hawthorn also contains a variety of other bioactive compounds, such as:
Triterpenoids: Triterpenoids are a type of plant compound with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. The most abundant triterpenoids in hawthorn are:
Ursolic acid: Ursolic acid is a triterpenoid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties.
Oleanolic acid: Oleanolic acid is a triterpenoid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties.
Other compounds: Hawthorn also contains a variety of other compounds, such as:
Sugars: Hawthorn contains a variety of sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
Minerals: Hawthorn contains a variety of minerals, such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium. These minerals are essential for the proper functioning of the body.
Vitamins: Hawthorn contains a variety of vitamins, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and vitamin K.
Glycoside
Anthocyanin
Saponin
Tannin
Ursolic acid
Oleanolic acid
Caffeoyl-quinic acid derivatives
Coumarin
Umbelliferone
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Contraindications and Safety of Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)
Overview:
Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) is a flowering shrub belonging to the rose family, commonly used for various medicinal purposes. The leaves, berries, and flowers of hawthorn contain flavonoids with antioxidant effects and are known to improve blood circulation and heart function.
Contraindications:
1. Heart Disease: Hawthorn can interact with prescription drugs used for heart disease. It is crucial for individuals with heart conditions to consult healthcare providers before using hawthorn.
2. Surgery: Hawthorn might slow blood clotting, increasing the risk of bleeding during and after surgery. It is advised to stop using hawthorn at least two weeks before a scheduled surgery.
3. Pregnancy and Breastfeeding: There is insufficient reliable information on the safety of hawthorn during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It is recommended to avoid its use during these periods.
Safety and Side Effects:
1. General Tolerance: When taken orally, hawthorn is possibly safe in doses up to 1800 mg daily for up to 16 weeks. Long-term safety beyond 16 weeks is not well established.
2. Common Side Effects: Side effects are rare but may include headache, nausea, and palpitations (a feeling of a racing heart).
3. Blood Pressure and Clotting: Hawthorn might lower blood pressure and slow blood clotting. It should be used cautiously with medications that have similar effects to avoid excessively low blood pressure or increased risk of bruising and bleeding.
4. Interactions with Medications: Hawthorn may interact with medications for male sexual dysfunction, medications that affect heart-muscle contraction (like digoxin), and medications that cause blood vessels to dilate (like nitrates).
Dosage:
The most commonly used doses of hawthorn extract in adults range from 160-1200 mg daily. However, the appropriate dose can vary based on individual health conditions and should be determined in consultation with a healthcare provider.
References:
1. “HAWTHORN: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews” – https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-527/hawthorn
2. “The Effect of Common Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.) Syrup on Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Symptoms” – https://www.scholarai.com
3. “The effects of hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) syrup on gastroesophageal reflux symptoms” – https://www.scholarai.com
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